Fulfilled Prophecy: Which Arguments Hold Up?

Christians have argued from prophecy since the first Easter. On the road to Emmaus the risen Christ, "beginning at Moses and all the Prophets," expounded to two disciples "in all the Scriptures the things concerning Himself."¹ Today the argument is everywhere, from sermons to charts listing hundreds of fulfilled prophecies and claims that the odds against them are like finding one marked coin in a pile covering Texas.

Some of these arguments are very good. Others are weak, and a reader who checks a weak one and finds it wanting may assume the whole Christian case is built the same way. It is not. This overview grades the best-known prophecy arguments honestly and links the site's detailed studies rather than repeating them.

In brief

The Church confesses that Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah of Israel, the one of whom "the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms" speak.² That confession does not hang on any single proof-text, and the arguments offered for it are not equally strong. The strongest is Isaiah 52:13-53:12, preserved in a scroll dated about 125 BC. Psalm 22 as a whole is strong, though its word "pierced" is textually disputed. Micah 5:2 (Bethlehem) is of moderate strength, because some historians doubt the Bethlehem birth. Daniel 9 points to the right era but not to a calculable day. Isaiah 7:14 is a sign read typologically, not a stand-alone proof. The prophecy against Tyre is weak as an apologetic argument, and probability calculations such as Peter Stoner's are unreliable. St Justin and St Irenaeus read the prophets as fulfilled in Christ, through spoken predictions and types, which is still the Orthodox way of reading.

Thesis: The prophets bear true witness to Jesus as the Messiah, but that witness is a pattern of promises and types fulfilled in His death and resurrection, best defended with the strong texts and an honest admission of the weak ones.

What counts as "fulfilment"?

Not every New Testament "fulfilment" is a forecast. St Matthew says the return from Egypt fulfilled the words "Out of Egypt I called My Son."³ In Hosea the line looks back on the Exodus: "When Israel was a child, I loved him, And out of Egypt I called My son."⁴ Matthew's point is that Christ relives and completes Israel's story. This is typology: a person, event or institution in Israel's history that prefigures Christ and is filled out in Him.

St Justin Martyr described both kinds of prophecy: the Holy Spirit "sometimes brought about that something, which was the type of the future, should be done clearly; sometimes He uttered words about what was to take place, as if it was then taking place."⁵ Both are legitimate, but they must be graded differently. A typological fulfilment should never be sold to a skeptic as a precise forecast. The site's article How Should Christians Read the Old Testament? treats typology at length.

The scorecard

Text	Common claim	Grade	Why
Isaiah 52:13-53:12	Foretells the Messiah's suffering, death and exaltation	Strong	Pre-Christian text; close fit; the servant's identity is debated
Psalm 22	Foretells the crucifixion	Strong as a whole; debated on "pierced"	Jesus prayed it on the Cross; one key word is a textual crux
Micah 5:2	Foretells birth in Bethlehem	Moderate	Clearly about a ruler from Bethlehem; the birthplace is contested by some historians
Daniel 9:24-27	Dates the Messiah	Moderate for the era; weak for exact-day charts	Chronology depends on many choices
Isaiah 7:14	Foretells the virgin birth	Weak as a proof-text; sound as typology	The sign first concerned King Ahaz
Ezekiel 26 (Tyre)	Exact fulfilment proves inspiration	Weak	Ezekiel notes the siege did not go as described; Tyre was rebuilt
Probability calculations	Odds of 1 in 1017	Unreliable	Guessed inputs; disputed fulfilments counted as facts

Isaiah 52:13-53:12: the strongest text

The fourth Servant Song describes a servant who is despised, "wounded for our transgressions," silent before his oppressors, "numbered with the transgressors," who "bore the sin of many," and who is then exalted.⁶ Its date is not in doubt. The Great Isaiah Scroll from Qumran contains all 66 chapters and, according to the Israel Museum, dates "from ca. 125 BCE."⁷

{{strong: Isaiah 52:13-53:12 was written down before Christ, and its pattern of a righteous servant who suffers for the sins of others, dies and is exalted corresponds closely to the death and resurrection of Jesus.}} The early Church proclaimed Jesus from this very passage (Acts 8:32-35).⁸ The honest weakness is that Isaiah elsewhere calls Israel God's servant, and Jewish interpreters have long read the poem of Israel. The site's study Isaiah 53: Israel, the Servant, or the Messiah? sets out that debate. The Christian answer is that the Messiah is Israel's representative, who fulfils Israel's calling as no one else has.

Psalm 22: strong as a whole, debated in one word

Psalm 22 opens with the cry Jesus prayed on the Cross, "My God, My God, why have You forsaken Me?" It includes "They divide My garments among them, And for My clothing they cast lots," which St John says the soldiers fulfilled, and it ends with the nations turning to the Lord.⁹ As the prayer of a righteous sufferer abandoned and then delivered, it fits the Passion closely, and Christ Himself took it on His lips.

The line in verse 16 is another matter. The NKJV reads "They pierced My hands and My feet," but its footnote says the reading follows "some Heb. mss., LXX, Syr., Vg.," while the Masoretic Text has "Like a lion."¹⁰ The Septuagint, the Old Testament the Orthodox Church reads, has "they pierced my hands and my feet" (Brenton, Psalm 21:17; the Greek verb literally means "they dug"), and St Justin quoted it so.¹¹ The earliest Hebrew evidence, a fragment of Psalms from Nahal Hever near the Dead Sea, and several medieval manuscripts spell the word with a final waw (k'rw) where the Masoretic Text has k'ry, "like a lion"; the variant looks like a verb, and its meaning is argued over. The Psalms: Layer by Layer project notes that "All of the ancient translations have a third-person plural verb compatible with the letters" of that reading, though they differ on its meaning ("they gouged," "they bound," "they have pierced").¹² The Jewish writer Gerald Sigal argues that "rendering the word in question as 'pierced' is totally incorrect."¹³ {{debated: Whether the original Hebrew of Psalm 22:16 (22:17 in Hebrew numbering) said "they pierced" or "like a lion" is a genuine textual dispute.}} The psalm's witness does not depend on that word, and an apologist who makes it the centrepiece is choosing the weakest ground in a strong text.

Micah 5:2: Bethlehem

Micah says that out of Bethlehem, little "among the thousands of Judah," "shall come forth to Me The One to be Ruler in Israel, Whose goings forth are from of old, From everlasting."¹⁴ The Gospels report that this was read of the Messiah in the first century: the chief priests and scribes cite it to Herod, and a Jerusalem crowd says "the Christ comes from the seed of David and from the town of Bethlehem."¹⁵ Orthodox Christians hear in "from of old, from everlasting" the eternal Son, born in time at Bethlehem.

The argument's force depends on the birthplace. Matthew and Luke, who tell the infancy very differently, both place it in Bethlehem, and in the third century Origen reports that visitors were shown "the cave where He was born."¹⁶ Some historians doubt it. Helen Bond of the University of Edinburgh told MailOnline in 2024, "It's most likely to have simply been Nazareth, where the family lived."¹⁷ {{moderate: Micah 5:2 points to a Davidic ruler from Bethlehem, and two independent Gospels place Jesus' birth there, but the argument will not persuade anyone who doubts the infancy narratives.}}

Daniel 9: the right era, not a calculable day

Daniel 9 says that after the "weeks" "Messiah shall be cut off, but not for Himself," and "the people of the prince who is to come Shall destroy the city and the sanctuary."¹⁸ For Christians who saw the Anointed One put to death and Jerusalem's Temple destroyed by Rome in AD 70, the correspondence was hard to miss, and it remains a serious argument.

What does not hold up is the claim that Daniel gives the exact day of Christ's entry into Jerusalem. As the site's study Daniel 9 and the Seventy Weeks explains, every calculation depends on choices: the starting decree, the length of the year, gaps, the punctuation of verse 25. A common critical reading identifies the "anointed one" with the high priest Onias III, murdered in the second century BC. Christians can answer that the goals of verse 24, to "make an end of sins" and "bring in everlasting righteousness," were never met in that age, and that the same book gives the vision of one like a son of man (see the site's study of Daniel 7). Daniel 9 is a moderate argument for the era of the Messiah and a weak one when pressed into a calendar.

Isaiah 7:14: a true sign, a weak proof-text

Isaiah 7:14 reads in the NKJV, "Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and shall call His name Immanuel," and St Matthew cites it of Christ's conception.¹⁹ The Septuagint, translated before Christ, already reads "a virgin," so Christians did not invent that wording, and St Irenaeus defended it against those who rendered it "a young woman."²⁰ But the Hebrew 'almah ordinarily means a young woman, and the sign was first given to King Ahaz in his own crisis. As a proof offered to a skeptic, the verse is weak; as a sign of "God with us" fulfilled in the virginal conception, it is the Church's reading, and her faith in the virgin birth rests on the apostolic witness of the Gospels, confessed in the Creed. See Isaiah 7:14: "Virgin" or "Young Woman"?

Tyre: a weak argument

Ezekiel 26 says God will bring Nebuchadnezzar against Tyre, its stones and timber will be laid "in the midst of the water," it will be "a place for spreading nets," and "you shall never be rebuilt."²¹ Apologists point to Alexander the Great, who resolved "to construct a mole from the mainland to the city" and took Tyre in 332 BC, and they note that the oracle moves from "he" (Nebuchadnezzar) to "they," the "many nations" of verse 3.²²

The difficulties are real. Josephus preserves Phoenician records that "Nabuchodonosor besieged Tyre for thirteen years," and Ezekiel himself later says that Nebuchadnezzar's army labored against Tyre "yet neither he nor his army received wages from Tyre."²³ Tyre was also rebuilt. UNESCO notes that after Alexander "First a Greek city, and then a Roman city were constructed on this site," and St Paul's ship landed there (Acts 21:3-4).²⁴ Replies that "never be rebuilt" means only the old Phoenician power are possible but strained. {{debated: The prophecy against Tyre is a weak argument for inspiration, because Ezekiel himself records that Nebuchadnezzar's siege did not go as first described and the city was rebuilt.}}

This does not trouble the Church's faith. Ezekiel's oracles are judgements on pride, and Scripture teaches that such words can be conditional: "if that nation against whom I have spoken turns from its evil, I will relent."²⁵ The mistake belongs to readers who turn a prophet into a forecaster and stake the faith on one forecast.

The "odds" arguments

The most copied probability argument comes from Peter W. Stoner's Science Speaks, first published in the 1940s. Stoner assigned probabilities to eight prophecies, multiplied them, and reached "1 in 10¹⁷," pictured as one marked silver dollar among coins that "will cover all of the state two feet deep" in Texas; for forty-eight prophecies he reached "1 in 10¹⁵⁷."²⁶

The method fails. The inputs are guesses: Stoner says college students "agreed unanimously on a definite estimate" for each. The events are treated as independent, though they are not. Some "fulfilments" are themselves disputed: the crucifixion is counted from the "pierced" of Psalm 22, and a betrayal "in the house of my friends" is taken from Zechariah 13:6, where the speaker in context is a disgraced false prophet.²⁷ And a Messiah who knows the Scriptures can enact them on purpose, as Jesus did by entering Jerusalem on a donkey (Matthew 21:4-5).²⁸ That is a messianic sign, not a chance event. Christians should stop using these numbers.

How the Fathers read prophecy

The Fathers argued from prophecy constantly, through spoken predictions and types, never by arithmetic. St Justin wrote: "In these books, then, of the prophets we found Jesus our Christ foretold as coming, born of a virgin, growing up to man's estate," and "crucified, and dying, and rising again."²⁹ In the Dialogue with Trypho he reads Moses' outstretched hands during the battle with Amalek as "a type of no other thing than of the cross," says "the passover was Christ, who was afterwards sacrificed," and says Psalm 22 refers "to the suffering and to the cross in a parable of mystery."³⁰ The site's article on Justin Martyr introduces him.

St Irenaeus gave the principle its classic form: "the treasure hid in the Scriptures is Christ, since He was pointed out by means of types and parables." He admitted that "every prophecy, before its fulfilment, is to men [full of] enigmas and ambiguities," but that after the event "the prophecies have a clear and certain exposition."³¹ That is still the Orthodox reading: the Old Testament read in the light of the Cross and Resurrection, in the Church's worship. On the eve of the Nativity the lessons include Micah 5 and Isaiah 7; on Great and Holy Friday they include Isaiah 52:13-54:1 and Zechariah 11:10-13.³²

The Fathers also used weak arguments. Justin accused Jewish teachers of cutting "from the wood" out of Psalm 96, which he said had read "the Lord has reigned from the wood."³³ The words are not in the Hebrew, and the standard Septuagint reads simply "The Lord reigns" (Brenton, Psalm 95:10). A note in the Ante-Nicene Fathers gives the editor Otto's judgement that the words "were not taken away by the Jews, but added by some Christian"; the American editor added, "A statement not proved."³⁴ The faith does not need that charge, and Christians should not repeat it.

Objections and replies

"The Gospel writers shaped their stories to fit the prophecies."

In Who Killed Jesus? (1995), John Dominic Crossan argued that the Passion narratives are, in one reviewer's summary, largely "prophecy historicized" rather than "history remembered." Craig A. Evans replied that the book "raises many issues touching method and assumptions which will concern scholars."³⁵ The central events are the least likely to be invented. A crucified Messiah was a scandal: Justin's Trypho says "we know that He should suffer," yet balks at a death "so disgracefully and so dishonourably by the death cursed in the law."³⁶ Some details may be told in the language of the psalms, but the Cross and the empty tomb were not drawn from proof-texts.

"The prophecies could fit many people."

Origen records Celsus asking, "Why should it be you alone, rather than innumerable others, who existed after the prophecies were published, to whom these predictions are applicable?" Origen replied that Celsus wrote as if neither Christ's birthplace, nor His sufferings, nor His resurrection, nor His works had been foretold.³⁷ The argument is cumulative. The sin-bearing servant, the ruler from Bethlehem, the abandoned sufferer of Psalm 22, Daniel's Son of Man and the "light to the Gentiles" of Isaiah 49:6 converge in one person.³⁸ The last is still visible: the God of Israel is worshipped across the nations through faith in a crucified Jew.

"Jesus did not do what the Messiah must do."

This is the main Jewish objection, and it deserves respect. Maimonides held that a Davidic king is definitely the Messiah only if he succeeds, builds the Temple in its place and gathers the dispersed of Israel.³⁹ The Christian answer goes back to Justin: the prophets proclaimed "two advents," one "when He came as a dishonoured and suffering Man," the other when "He shall come from heaven with glory."⁴⁰ Isaiah 53 itself puts suffering before exaltation. The Church confesses that Christ has already conquered death, gathers Israel and the nations into one Body, and will come again in glory.

"If prophecy needs interpretation, it proves nothing."

It proves less than a mathematical demonstration, and Christians should say so. But a pattern of promise and fulfilment is still evidence, and it was never meant to stand alone. It works together with the evidence for the Resurrection (see The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus), which is what convinced the apostles that the Scriptures spoke of Him. For the main texts side by side, see the Messianic Prophecy Reference Sheet.

What we can say confidently

• Isaiah 52:13-53:12 and Psalm 22 were written down long before Jesus, and their pattern of a righteous sufferer who is vindicated corresponds closely to His death and resurrection.
• Micah 5:2 was read of the Messiah in the first century, and two independent Gospels place Jesus' birth in Bethlehem.
• Reading the Old Testament as fulfilled in Christ is as old as the New Testament and was developed by St Justin and St Irenaeus, through both prediction and typology.
• Probability calculations such as Stoner's rest on guessed and disputed inputs and should not be used.
• Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah of whom the Law, the Prophets and the Psalms speak. This is the faith of the Church, not an open question.

What remains disputed

• The original Hebrew of Psalm 22:16 (22:17 in Hebrew): "they pierced" or "like a lion."
• The servant's identity in Isaiah 53 in its own setting, and how far it was read messianically before Christ.
• Whether Jesus was born in Bethlehem, as Matthew and Luke say, or in Nazareth, as some historians argue.
• How Daniel 9's seventy weeks should be counted, and how its "anointed one" relates to the crisis under Antiochus IV.

Conclusion

The prophets spoke God's word to Israel in their own day, and that word carried a promise larger than their day: a ruler whose goings forth are from everlasting, a servant who would bear the sins of many, a sufferer whom God would not abandon, a Son of Man to whom the kingdom would be given. In Jesus Christ, crucified and risen, the Church recognises the fulfilment of that promise, as the apostles did when the risen Lord opened the Scriptures to them.

That faith is better served by a few strong arguments, honestly made, than by a chart of hundreds. The weak ones can be set aside without loss. What remains is what St Irenaeus called the treasure hidden in the Scriptures: Christ, foreshadowed in types, promised by the prophets, and now made known in His Church, to whom be glory with the Father and the Holy Spirit.

Notes

1. Luke 24:27 (NKJV). Bible quotations are from the New King James Version unless marked as the Septuagint (Brenton).
2. Luke 24:44 (NKJV).
3. Matthew 2:15 (NKJV).
4. Hosea 11:1 (NKJV).
5. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 114, trans. Marcus Dods and George Reith, Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 1 (1885), https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/01288.htm.
6. Isaiah 52:13; 53:5, 7, 12 (NKJV).
7. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, "The Great Isaiah Scroll," The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls, http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/isaiah.
8. Acts 8:32-35 (NKJV).
9. Psalm 22:1, 18, 27; Matthew 27:46; John 19:23-24 (NKJV).
10. Psalm 22:16 (NKJV) with its footnote, https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm+22&version=NKJV.
11. Psalm 21:17 (LXX), in Lancelot C. L. Brenton, trans., The Septuagint with Apocrypha (1851), https://ebible.org/eng-Brenton/PSA021.htm; Justin, Dialogue 97 (see note 30).
12. "The Text of Psalm 22:17b," Psalms: Layer by Layer, https://psalms.scriptura.org/w/The_Text_of_Ps._22:17b. The page surveys the Nahal Hever fragment (5/6HevPs), the ancient versions and modern proposals, including Kristin M. Swenson, "Psalm 22:17: Circling around the Problem Again," Journal of Biblical Literature 123 (2004).
13. Gerald Sigal, "The Crucifixion of Jesus and Psalm 22" (chapter 37d), Jews for Judaism, https://jewsforjudaism.org/knowledge/articles/chapter-37d-the-crucifixion-of-jesus-and-psalm-22.
14. Micah 5:2 (NKJV); 5:1 in Hebrew and Septuagint numbering.
15. Matthew 2:4-6; John 7:42 (NKJV).
16. Origen, Against Celsus 1.51, trans. Frederick Crombie, Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 4, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04161.htm.
17. Wiliam Hunter, "Scientists reveal exactly where Jesus was born - and say it probably WASN'T in Bethlehem," MailOnline (Daily Mail), 22 December 2024, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-14209211/Scientists-reveal-Jesus-birthplace-Bethlehem.html (Bond's words to MailOnline).
18. Daniel 9:24, 26 (NKJV).
19. Isaiah 7:14; Matthew 1:22-23 (NKJV).
20. Isaiah 7:14 (LXX), Brenton, https://ebible.org/eng-Brenton/ISA07.htm; Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.21.1, ANF vol. 1, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103321.htm.
21. Ezekiel 26:3-14 (NKJV), quoting verses 12 and 14.
22. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander 2.18 and 2.24, trans. E. J. Chinnock (1884), with Chinnock's note dating the capture to "B.C. 332," Project Gutenberg, https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/46976; Ezekiel 26:3, 7-12 (NKJV).
23. Josephus, Against Apion 1.21, trans. William Whiston, Project Gutenberg, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2849/2849-h/2849-h.htm; Ezekiel 29:17-20 (NKJV).
24. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, "Tyre," https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/299/; Acts 21:3-4 (NKJV).
25. Jeremiah 18:7-8 (NKJV).
26. Peter W. Stoner, Science Speaks, chapter 3, "The Christ of Prophecy" (Moody Press; online edition revised 2005), https://sciencespeaks.dstoner.net/Christ_of_Prophecy.html.
27. Stoner, Science Speaks, ch. 3 (see note 26); Zechariah 13:2-6 (NKJV).
28. Matthew 21:4-5 (NKJV).
29. Justin Martyr, First Apology 31, trans. Dods and Reith, Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 1, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm.
30. Justin, Dialogue 111 and 97, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/01288.htm and https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/01287.htm.
31. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 4.26.1, trans. Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut, Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 1, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103426.htm.
32. Orthodox Church in America, Scripture Readings for 24 December 2024 and for 18 April 2025 (Great and Holy Friday), https://www.oca.org/readings/daily/2024/12/24 and https://www.oca.org/readings/daily/2025/04/18.
33. Justin, Dialogue 73, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/01286.htm; Psalm 95:10 (LXX), Brenton, https://ebible.org/eng-Brenton/PSA095.htm.
34. Note 1 to Dialogue 73, Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 1 (the bracketed comment is the American editor's), as reproduced by the Bibliothek der Kirchenväter, University of Fribourg, https://bkv.unifr.ch/en/works/cpg-1076/versions/dialogue-of-justin-philosopher-and-martyr-with-trypho-a-jew/divisions/74.
35. Craig A. Evans, "The Passion of Jesus: History Remembered or Prophecy Historicized?" Bulletin for Biblical Research 6 (1996), https://www.galaxie.com/article/bbr06-1-12; the summary of Crossan's thesis is from Danny Yee's review of Who Killed Jesus?, https://dannyreviews.com/h/Who_Killed_Jesus.html.
36. Justin, Dialogue 90, https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/01287.htm.
37. Origen, Against Celsus 1.50-51 (see note 16).
38. Isaiah 49:6 (NKJV).
39. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Melachim uMilchamot (Kings and Wars) 11:4, trans. Eliyahu Touger, Chabad.org, https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1188356/jewish/Melachim-uMilchamot-Chapter-11.htm.
40. Justin, First Apology 52 (see note 29).

Bibliography

Primary sources

• The Holy Bible, New King James Version. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1982.
• Brenton, Lancelot C. L., trans. The Septuagint with Apocrypha: English. London: Samuel Bagster, 1851.
• Josephus. Against Apion. Trans. William Whiston.
• Arrian. The Anabasis of Alexander. Trans. E. J. Chinnock. London, 1884.

Orthodox and patristic sources

• Justin Martyr. First Apology and Dialogue with Trypho. Trans. Marcus Dods and George Reith. Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1. Buffalo: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885.
• Irenaeus of Lyons. Against Heresies. Trans. Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut. Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1. 1885.
• Origen. Against Celsus. Trans. Frederick Crombie. Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 4. 1885.
• Orthodox Church in America. Daily Scripture Readings (lectionary), oca.org.

Other scholarship and reference

• The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. "The Great Isaiah Scroll." The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls.
• Psalms: Layer by Layer. "The Text of Psalm 22:17b."
• Evans, Craig A. "The Passion of Jesus: History Remembered or Prophecy Historicized?" Bulletin for Biblical Research 6 (1996).
• Yee, Danny. Review of John Dominic Crossan, Who Killed Jesus? Danny Reviews (online).
• UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Tyre."
• "Scientists reveal exactly where Jesus was born - and say it probably WASN'T in Bethlehem." MailOnline (Daily Mail), 22 December 2024.
• Stoner, Peter W. Science Speaks. Chicago: Moody Press; online edition revised 2005.

Jewish and skeptical sources

• Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Melachim uMilchamot (Kings and Wars). Trans. Eliyahu Touger. Chabad.org.
• Sigal, Gerald. "The Crucifixion of Jesus and Psalm 22." Jews for Judaism.
• Crossan, John Dominic. Who Killed Jesus? 1995 (cited through Evans and Yee).