Paul repeatedly denies justification by works of the law. For centuries Western Christians often heard this as: “You cannot earn salvation by doing good works.” That conclusion contains an essential Pauline truth. But is that exactly what the phrase works of the law means?
Twentieth-century scholarship complicated the answer.
The Reformation Reading
Martin Luther read Paul against late medieval debates about merit, penance, grace, and righteousness. Romans and Galatians became foundational texts for justification by faith apart from works.
In Protestant interpretation, “works of the law” often expanded into a broad category: any human deed offered as the basis of righteousness before God.
That reading powerfully preserves Paul’s attack on boasting and human self-sufficiency. Romans 3–4 certainly makes boasting impossible. But historians began asking whether Luther’s medieval controversy was being projected backward onto first-century Judaism.
E. P. Sanders and Judaism
E. P. Sanders transformed Pauline studies with Paul and Palestinian Judaism. He argued that Second Temple Judaism was badly caricatured when described as a religion in which Jews believed they earned God’s favor by accumulating enough meritorious deeds.
Sanders coined covenantal nomism. In simplified form, Israel enters covenant by God’s grace and election, while Torah describes life within that covenant. Obedience was not necessarily imagined as purchasing election.
This forced Christian scholars to reconsider older pictures of “legalistic Judaism.”
James D. G. Dunn
James Dunn coined the term New Perspective on Paul. He argued that “works of the law” often concern practices identifying Jews as members of the covenant, especially circumcision, food laws, and sabbath.
These could function as ethnic and religious boundary markers separating Jews from Gentiles. In Galatians, this fits the controversy extremely well. Paul is not arguing abstractly about whether Christians should help the poor. He is arguing over whether Gentiles must be circumcised and take on Jewish covenantal identity.
N. T. Wright
N. T. Wright developed a related but distinct account. Justification, in his reading, is God’s declaration concerning who belongs to the covenant family. Faith in Messiah—not Torah badges—marks out that family. The law court, covenant, Messiah, and eschatological judgment all belong together.
Wright’s formulation generated intense Protestant debate because critics feared that traditional justification by faith was being redefined.
The Dead Sea Scrolls and 4QMMT
One of the most important discoveries for the phrase itself came from Qumran. A text known as 4QMMT contains the Hebrew expression ma‘ase ha-torah—“works of the law.” The document discusses concrete legal rulings concerning purity and Torah observance.
This demonstrates that Paul’s phrase was not invented by Luther or by modern theologians. It existed within Jewish legal and covenantal discourse.
That does not prove Dunn’s entire interpretation. But it is significant historical evidence.
Does “Works of the Law” Mean Only Boundary Markers?
Probably not. This is where some versions of the New Perspective can become too narrow.
Paul’s examples include circumcision and food-related table fellowship. But Romans 3 also places the discussion within the universal problem of sin. Paul concludes that all have sinned. Romans 4 uses Abraham before circumcision but also addresses boasting and reward. Galatians 3 speaks of those relying on works of law being under a curse because Torah demands comprehensive obedience.
So Paul’s critique cannot be reduced to: “Ethnic badges are bad; ordinary moral works save.” Paul’s gospel attacks all grounds for human boasting before God.
Is Paul Attacking Judaism?
Paul is a Jew arguing from Israel’s Scriptures. His opponents in Galatians are likely Christ-believers. The dispute is an internal first-century Jewish and Christian argument about the messianic age and Gentile inclusion.
Paul does not say, “Jews are legalists, Christians believe in grace.” He says God’s promise to Abraham reaches the nations in Christ and that the Spirit has arrived apart from Gentile Torah conversion.
Anti-Jewish readings distort the argument.
Faith or Faithfulness?
Another major debate concerns the phrase pistis Christou. Does it mean faith in Christ or the faithfulness of Christ?
Both grammatical readings have defenders. The second highlights Christ’s own faithful obedience as the foundation of salvation. The first highlights the believer’s trust.
Theologically the two are not mutually exclusive. Paul can affirm Christ’s faithfulness and human faith. But the grammatical debate warns us not to force later theological systems onto every phrase too quickly.
Paul Still Expects Obedience
Paul’s rejection of works of law does not produce passive Christianity. He teaches faith working through love, bearing one another’s burdens, walking by the Spirit, generosity, sexual holiness, forgiveness, endurance, and the obedience of faith.
Galatians warns that those practicing works of the flesh will not inherit the kingdom. So “not justified by works of law” cannot mean that how Christians live has no relation to salvation.
The Orthodox Perspective
Orthodoxy agrees fiercely that salvation is a gift of grace accomplished by Christ. Human beings cannot place God in their debt. At the same time, Orthodoxy does not separate living faith from grace-enabled obedience.
That makes the New Perspective’s historical correction useful. Paul is not attacking synergistic life in the Spirit. He is attacking reliance on Torah as the covenantal basis for Gentile inclusion and, more broadly, every basis for boasting apart from Christ.
Orthodox synergy begins after and within grace, not outside it.
Paul and James
This distinction also helps with James. James condemns a dead “faith” that produces no obedience. Paul condemns works of law as the basis of justification and Gentile covenant membership. They are addressing different distortions.
Both appeal to Abraham. Paul emphasizes Abraham believing before circumcision. James emphasizes Abraham’s faith reaching completion in obedient action. The two arguments need not cancel each other.
Final Verdict
“Works of the law” should not be reduced either to generic good behavior or exclusively to ethnic boundary markers.
The New Perspective correctly reminds readers that Paul’s immediate controversies concern circumcision, Jew–Gentile fellowship, Torah, covenant identity, and the inclusion of the nations.
The traditional Protestant reading correctly preserves another crucial Pauline truth: no human being may boast before God; justification is gift; Christ—not human achievement—is the foundation of salvation.
Paul rejects reliance on Mosaic Torah-observance as the covenantal basis of righteousness and Gentile inclusion, within a larger gospel that eliminates all human boasting and creates a Spirit-filled life of obedient faith.
Key Sources
Primary sources
- Genesis 15; 17.
- Deuteronomy 27.
- Romans 2–4.
- Galatians 2–5.
- Philippians 3.
- 4QMMT (Miqsat Ma‘ase Ha-Torah).
Modern scholarship
- E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism.
- James D. G. Dunn, “The New Perspective on Paul.”
- N. T. Wright, Paul and the Faithfulness of God.
- Simon Gathercole, Where Is Boasting?
- Stephen Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul.